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When that external disequilibrium is thermal (i.e., a difference of temperatures), we call the open system a heat engine. The energy necessary to perform this work comes from an external disequilibrium. This modifies the usual Fokker–Planck and Langevin equations, offering a thermodynamically complete formulation of the irreversible dynamics of simple oscillating and rotating engines.Īn engine is an open system that can undergo a cyclical transformation (i.e., one in which the macroscopic initial and final states are the same) that produces net work W > 0. Based on this, we show how the external loading force and the thermal noise may be incorporated into the relevant equations of motion. We propose a general conceptualization of an engine that helps clarify the distinction between its heat and work outputs. We argue that recent advances in the theory of open quantum systems, coupled with renewed interest in understanding how active forces result from positive feedback between different macroscopic degrees of freedom in the presence of dissipation, point to a more realistic description of autonomous engines. ![]() This has hampered the usefulness of statistical mechanics applied to active systems, including living matter. ![]() They are ubiquitous in nature and technology, but the course of mathematical physics over the last 300 years has tended to make their dynamics in time a theoretical blind spot. Engines are open systems that can generate work cyclically at the expense of an external disequilibrium.
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